Learning to read in culturally responsive computer environments

By Pinkard, Nichole
National Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement, University of Michigan (1999)

Summary and Review  |  Profile and Features  |  Complete Study  |  Related Studies

 Print Version of Review

APA Reference:

Pinkard, N. (1999). Learning to read in culturally responsive computer environments (No. CIERA Report #1-004). Ann Arbor, MI: Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement, University of Michigan
Retrieved June 29, 2006 from http://www.ciera.org/library/reports/inquiry-1/1-004/1-004.pdf.

Summary:

The report describes two formative studies focused on the use of two multimedia early literacy applications with embedded language acquisition activities. These applications were designed to support African-American children’s early literacy development. A third study, consisting of two small case studies, is part of the publication but is omitted from this review due to a lack of substantive detail.

Pinkard (1999) conducted the first study with nine 1st graders, eight 2nd graders, twelve 3rd graders, and four 4th graders from after-school center programs for struggling or at-risk readers (23 African-American and 10 white students). The study investigated the impact of a multimedia early literacy application titled Rappin’ Reader. The second study Pinkard conducted was similar. It involved 12 students, seven in first grade and five in second grade, who are active in a tutoring program for low-income African-American students living in a large urban housing project. The 12 students were paired into six groups for two 90-minute sessions in which they used a multimedia early literacy application titled Say Say Oh Playmate. Both studies addressed how the multimedia literacy applications enabled beginning readers to use their existing oral language as a building block to learn letter-sound relationships, develop phonemic awareness, improve sight vocabulary and become engaged in active reading.

In both studies, students used multimedia early literacy applications to perform a series of reading, writing and listening activities. Design of the multimedia applications used in this research builds upon earlier research about how nursery rhymes and predictable written genres support language play activities and literacy development (Hiebert & Raphael, 1998). The report describes how children can use their oral language skills from playground chants, rap music, and clap games as a scaffold for comprehending text that is contextually aligned with their cultural background.

Results showed sight vocabulary gains averaged 24% after a 90-minute session, using a pre and posttest. Participants also increased overall motivation to read, which was measured with a pre and post interview question “Do you like to read?". Findings from the interviews suggest that students who did not like to read may enjoy reading more after using software designed to assist them in applying their oral language skills to reading print. The findings also suggest multimedia modeling of morphology and phonics strategies can aid students in decoding unknown words. Use of multimedia to teach new words through repetitive song and clap routines may enhance sight word vocabulary development. Replication of the methods used in the study is possible and desirable to learn more about how multimedia can be used to aid in the development of reading skills.

Major implications for educational researchers/evaluators:

• Evaluation of specific early literacy software needs to be part of the research design process to identify software titles that include embedded instrumentation such as those identified in in this report (i.e., animated songs, nursery rhymes, cloze activities, sentence scramblers, letter-sound recognition exercises, clap routine sequences, audio recordings with speech-to-text and clickable text-to-speech functions).
  
• Instruments such as word lists to measure sight vocabulary need to be developed to align with specific software uses. Observation protocols also need to align with activities embedded in specific software uses.
  
• These exploratory studies raise questions worth further empirical investigations that include larger sample populations from emergent readers to struggling readers to build the knowledge based about how multimedia software can assist students in applying their oral language skills when learning to read print.
  
• Future research is needed to address questions of transfer of reading skills from software that provides multimedia support for the reading process to print-based materials that do not provide this support.

Major intervention(s) or variables studied:

• Use of oral clap routines and nursery rhymes to activate prior knowledge of language.
  
• Multimedia phonics exercise to develop phonemic awareness of letter-sound relationships.
  
• Use of sentence scrambler exercises to measure sentence level comprehension.
  
• Use of analogies as a decoding strategy for building sight word vocabulary.
  
• Use of text-to-speech functionality and computer-generated reading aloud of students’ written lyrics used to provide students with immediate oral feedback about the accuracy of their written text.

Major questions addressed:

• How can technology improve student motivation, attitude, and interest in learning?


• How can technology help to prepare students for the workforce?


• How can technology address the needs of low performing, at-risk, and students with learning disabilities?


• What applications of technology facilitate new learning opportunities?


• How can technology be used to effectively assess and monitor student performance?

Sources of evidence identified:

Pre- and post-tests, based on the Dolch second grade vocabulary list, were used to measure gains in sight word vocabulary.

Pre and post interview questionnaires to measure students’ engagement and enjoyment with using the different software programs as an indicator of motivation which is often lacking in struggling readers.

Replicable strategies, practices, and/or products:

The software applications used in these studies introduced children to the alphabet, phonemic awareness, and sight word vocabulary through repetitive song and rhymes and other language play activities familiar to them from their oral cultural background. The software used in these studies incorporated text-to-speech and writing functions, a customized dictionary containing definitions, cloze and language play activities, and letter-sound activities. These are common feature of early literacy software that teachers can use to implement instructional practices based on the findings of these studies.

The report covers a series of exploratory investigations with small samples that have similar findings in several contexts. Replication of the methods used in the study is possible and desirable to learn more about how multimedia can be used to aid in the development of early reading skills. Instruments such as word lists to measure sight word vocabulary gains need to be developed for or aligned with each specific software title used. Observation protocols also need to align with activities embedded in specific software uses.

Evaluation of specific early literacy software needs to be part of the research design process to identify software titles that incorporate the functions identified in this report (i.e., animated songs, nursery rhymes, cloze activities, sentence scramblers, letter-sound recognition exercises, clap routine sequences, audio recordings with speech-to-text and clickable text-to-speech functions).

Strengths and limitations of the study:

Strengths

• This research looks at the impact of specific functionality within the specific software titles used; however, the functionality is common in other early literacy software and provides a framework for other titles.
  
  
• This research highlights the usefulness of multimedia that has cultural relevancy for beginning or struggling readers to help them apply their oral language skills when learning to read print.

• The data to support the researcher's claims regarding increased motivation among struggling or reluctant readers is weak because of the small sample size and lack of a control group. More rigorous studies are needed to answer the questions raised in this report.
  
• The methods used in the study did not attempt to discriminate among potential causal factors such as multimedia features of the software and types of reading and writing activities performed by subjects.
  
• The two case studies in the report are very short and vague and the findings are therefore not included in this review.

Suggested related studies or resources to consider:

Anderson-Inman, L., & Horney, M. A. (1998). Transforming text for at-risk readers. In D. Reinking, M. C. McKenna, L. D. Labbo, & R. D. Keiffer (Eds.), Handbook of literacy and technology: Transformations in a post-typographic world. (pp. 15-44). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Hiebert, E.H. & Raphael, T.E. (1998). Early literacy instruction. Florence, KY: Delmar Learning.

Labbo, L., & Kuhn, M. (1998). Electronic symbol making: Young children's computer-related emerging concepts about literacy. In. D. Reinking, M. C. McKenna, L. D. Labbo, & R. D. Keiffer (Eds.). Handbook of literacy and technology: Transformations in a post-typographic world (pp.79-92). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

McKenna, M. (1998). Electronic tests and the transformation of beginning reading. In D. Reinking, M.C. McKenna, L.D. Labbo, & R.D. Keiffer (Eds.), Handbook of literacy and technology: Transformations in a post-typographic world (pp.45-59). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

* = Reviewed in CARET

CARET is a project of the International Society for Technology in Education in partnership with Educational Support Systems. CARET was founded in 2000 with a grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

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